Scientific research assignment #2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Logical examination task #2 - Essay Example ts has planet-driven view in that is important to accept that the structure squares of life on Mars are comparable to that of Earth thus will be carbon-based. It was obvious during the 70s that Martian surface conditions are firmly oxidized and this confuses endeavors to distinguish organic life. The Urey was created by NASA-subsidized specialists to work in these profoundly oxidized conditions. This instrument can separate between left-gave and right-gave amino acids with its The Mars Organic and Occident Detector (MOD) (Skelley et al., 2006). All life on Earth is included chains of amino acids, in spite of the fact that these might be to non-natural methods also. Earth life overwhelmingly will in general be contained left-gave amino-acids. The Urey can identify the two kinds of amino acids through an oxidant instrument that has microsensors covered with different synthetic compounds painted on like a film. Urey will have the option to distinguish key atoms related with life at an affectability about a million times more noteworthy than past instrumentation, that since it is the one with the most elevated affectability for natural synthet ic concoctions. In a differentiating study, Steel and associates (2004) are a piece of the interdisciplinary, worldwide Arctic Mars Analog Svalbard Expedition (AMASE) group shaped to build up an inspecting and examination instrument that can settle on ongoing choices on the outside of the planet as to climate looks forever should proceed in those zones. The instrument is being made to shape a two-stage insightful methodology; first the surface is examined to decide a perfect objective site; following examples and examinations are utilized to consider the genuine examples gathered. Candy et al. (2003) recommended that improvements of instruments that broaden information about extraterrestrial life can be made utilizing morphological biosignatures. These marks comprise of convincing microbial fossils just as microbial affected sedimentary structures. A microbial fossil

Get Some 411 on Growing Up With These Quotes

Get Some 411 on Growing Up With These Quotes On the off chance that youre amidst some genuine growing up pressure beaus, lady friends, companions, coteries, notoriety, grades, sports, guardians you may require a little life from the individuals who have been there and survived.â Statements About Growing Up The Wonder YearsGrowing up occurs instantly. One day youre in diapers; the following day youre gone. Be that as it may, the recollections of youth remain with you for the long stretch. Growing up is rarely simple. You clutch things that were. You wonder whats to come. In any case, that night, I think we realized the time had come to relinquish what had been and look forward to what might be. Different days. New days. Days to come. The thing is, we didnt need to detest each other for getting more seasoned. We simply needed to excuse ourselves ... for growing up. Alden NowlanThe day the kid understands that all grown-ups are flawed, he turns into a pre-adult; the day he pardons them, he turns into a grown-up; the day he excuses himself, he gets savvy. May Lamberton BeckerWe become neither better nor more awful as we get old, yet progressively such as ourselves. Walt DisneyToo numerous individuals grow up. That is the genuine issue with the world, such a large number of individuals grow up. They overlook. They dont recollect what its like to be 12 years of age. They disparage, they treat kids as inferiors. Indeed, I wont do that. Christopher MorleyWeve had misfortune with youngsters; theyve altogether grown up. Meredith GreyIve heard that its conceivable to grow up Ive just never met anybody whos really done it. Dr. James C. DobsonSometimes, were so worried about giving our youngsters what we never had growing up, we disregard to give them what we had growing up. Tom StoppardMaturity is a significant expense to pay for growing up. John J. PlompYou realize youngsters are growing up when they begin posing inquiries that have answers. P. J. ORourkeYou realize your youngsters are growing up when they quit asking you where they originated from and decline to reveal to you where theyre going. Elizabeth TaylorI think Im at last growing physically active time. Elvis PresleyI was a lone youngster, and Mother was in every case directly with me for my entire life. I used to get furious at her when I was growing up its a characteristic thing. Abraham LincolnYou need to do your own developing regardless of how tall your granddad was. J. M. BarrieGrowing up is such a primitive business, brimming with bother ... what's more, pimples. Mary Beth DanielsonIf growing up is the way toward making thoughts and dreams about what life ought to be, at that point development is giving up once more. Ethel BarrymoreYou grow up the day you have your first genuine chuckle at yourself. M. Scott PeckIt is simply because of issues that we develop intellectually and profoundly. Sylvia PlathDoing all the little precarious things it takes to grow up, bit by bit, into an on edge and agitating world. Casey StengelThe stunt is growing up without developing old. Woody HarrelsonA grown-up is a kid with layers on. Christopher AtkinsNow Im developing and I can see my shortcomings. I can take a gander at myself unbiasedly and state I cannot accuse any other individual; it was my own damn issue. Beverly MitchellPart of growing up is simply taking what you gain from that and proceeding onward and not acknowledging it.

How to write a bibliography

How to write a bibliography How to write a bibliography Whether you are tackling formal essay writing or writing an undergraduate or master's dissertation, many students find it daunting the first time they are required to write a bibliography at the end of a piece of work. Fear not â€" not only is it much less complicated and scary than you might think, but we have compiled a list of the most important basic pointers on how to write a bibliography. Read on to get on your way to the best dissertation bibliography… What is a bibliography? A bibliography is more simple than it sounds. It is a list, usually at the end of an undergraduate or master's dissertation, of all the sources you have used to help you write the essay. This includes both the sources you may have referred to or quoted already in the essay and also any further works you read whilst preparing or researching the essay, even if you didn’t specifically cite them. How to write a bibliography Using a separate line for each new text listed, simply write out the details of each of your texts in the following order: Author (surname, initials), year of publication, title of book (in italics or underlined), edition (if there have been more than one), publisher, place of publication. For example: Jones, AK, 2004, The Artists of Antiquity, 2nd edition, Virago, London Writing a bibliography: primary and secondary sources If you are writing a dissertation on a particular author or poet, you may want (or be required) to divide your bibliography into primary and secondary sources. In this case, works by the author himself that have formed the basis of the texts you have studied are primary sources, whilst critical reference books or other material are secondary sources. For example, in a dissertation on Austen, Pride and Prejudice would be a primary source, whilst Austen’s narrative voice: A companion would be a secondary source. Bibliography styles: Harvard and others There are several different accepted styles of bibliography, which have slight variations on the information included and the order in which it is presented. The method described above is a standard, widely accepted format, but when you are writing a bibliography make sure you check exactly what stylistic requirements are stipulated by the University or course provider. Remember, one of the most important tips on how to write a bibliography is to remain consistent â€" whatever method you choose, stick to it throughout and keep the style the same for every reference. You may also like... Top 10 tips for writing a dissertation methodology Advice for successfully writing a dissertation How to do your dissertation secondary research in 4 steps best dissertationbibliographydissertation helpdissertation referencing tipsessay referencingmasters dissertationsreferencing

Medusa The Ancient Greek Myth of the Snake-Haired Gorgon

In ancient Greek mythology, Medusa is a Gorgon, one of three hideous sisters whose appearance turns men to stone. She is killed by the hero Perseus, who cuts off her head. To the Greeks, Medusa is the leader of an ancient, older matriarchal religion that had to be obliterated; in modern culture, she represents vital sensuality and a power that is threatening to males.   Fast Facts: Medusa, Monster of Greek Mythology Alternate Names: MedousaEpithets: The RulerRealms and Powers: The great Ocean, can turn men to stone  with a glance.Family: The Gorgons (also Gorgones or Gorgous), including her sisters Stheno and Euryale; children Pegasus, ChrysaorCulture/Country: Greece, 6th century BCEPrimary Sources: Hesiods Theogony, Plato’s Gorgias, Ovids Metamorphosis Medusa in Greek Mythology The Three Gorgons are sisters: Medusa (the Ruler) is a mortal, her immortal sisters are Stheno (the Strong) and Euryale (the Far-Springer). Together they live either at the western end of the world or on the island of Sarpedon, in the middle of Poseidons Great Ocean. They all share Medusas snake-like locks, and her powers to turn men to stone. The Gorgons are one of two groups of sisters born of Phorkys (the old man of the sea) and his sister Keto (a sea-monster). The other group of sisters is the Graiai, the old women, Pemphredoo, Enyo, and Deino or Perso, who share one tooth and one eye which they pass between them; the Graiai play a role in Medusas myth. This relief of Medusa was part of a temple at Ephesus, Turkey, built by P. Quintilius before 128 CE, and dedicated to the Emperor Hadrian. ihsanGercelman / iStock / Getty Images Plus Appearance and Reputation   All three of the Gorgon sisters have glaring eyes, huge teeth (sometimes boars tusks), a protruding tongue, brazen claws, and serpent or octopus locks. Their frightful aspect turns men to stone.  The other sisters have only minor roles in Greek mythology, while the Medusa story is told many times by many different Greek and Roman writers. The Medusa head is a symbolic element in Roman and ancient Arabic kingdoms (Nabataean, Hatran, and Palmyrene cultures). In these contexts, it protects the dead, guards buildings or tombs, and wards off evil spirits. How Medusa Became a Gorgon   In one myth reported by the Greek poet Pindar (517–438 BCE), Medusa was a beautiful mortal woman who one day went to Athenas temple to worship. While she was there, Poseidon saw her and either seduced her or raped her, and she became pregnant. Athena, enraged at the desecration of her temple, turned her into a mortal Gorgon.   Medusa and Perseus In the principle myth, Medusa is killed by the Greek hero Perseus, the son of Danae and Zeus. Danae is the object of desire of Polydectes, the king of the Cycladic island of Seriphos. The king, sensing that Perseus was an obstacle to pursuing Danae, sends him on the impossible mission to bring back the head of Medusa. Perseus beheading the sleeping Medusa. Terracotta pilike (jar), Attic period, ca. 450–440 BCE, attributed to Polygnotos of Thasos. Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1945 (public domain) Aided by Hermes and Athena, Perseus finds his way to the Graiai and tricks them by stealing their one eye and tooth. They are forced to tell him where he can find weapons to help him kill Medusa: winged sandals to carry him to the Gorgons island, the cap of Hades to render him invisible, and a metallic satchel (kibisis) to hold her head once it is cut off. Hermes gives him an adamantine (unbreakable) sickle, and he also carries a polished bronze shield.   Perseus flies to Sarpedon, and looking at Medusas reflection in his shield—to avoid the vision that would turn him to stone—, cuts off her head, puts it in the satchel and flies back to Seriphos. On her death, Medusas children (fathered by Poseidon) fly out of her neck: Chrysaor, wielder of a golden sword, and Pegasus, the winged horse, who is best known for the myth of Bellerophon. Role in Mythology In general, the appearance and death of Medusa are thought to be the symbolic repression of an older matriarchal religion. That is probably what the Roman emperor Justinian (527–565 CE) had in mind when he included older sculptures of Medusas head turned on its side or upside down as plinths at the base of two columns in the underground Christian cistern/basilica of Yerebatan Sarayi in Constantinople. Another story reported by the British classicist Robert Graves is that Medusa was the name of a fierce Libyan queen who took her troops into battle and was beheaded when she lost. Medusa Head at Yerebatan Sarayi Cistern in Istanbul. Medusas severed head, upside down or on one cheek, is featured as the base of several columns in the large underground cistern built by Byzantine Emperor Justinian I (527–565 CE). flavijus / Getty Images Plus Medusa in Modern Culture   In modern culture, Medusa is seen as a powerful symbol of female intelligence and wisdom, related to the goddess Metis, who was a wife of Zeus. The snake-like head is a symbol of her cunning, a perversion of the matrifocal ancient goddess who the Greeks must destroy. According to historian Joseph Campbell (1904–1987), the Greeks used the Medusa story to justify the destruction of idols and temples of an ancient goddess mother wherever they found them. Her snaky locks led to the use of Medusas name to refer to jellyfish. Sources and Further Reading Almasri, Eyad , et al. Medusa in Nabataean, Hatran and Palmyrene Cultures. Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry 18.3 (2018): 89-102. Print.Dolmage, Jay. Metis, Mà ªtis, Mestiza, Medusa: Rhetorical Bodies across Rhetorical Traditions. Rhetoric Review 28.1 (2009): 1–28. Print.Hard, Robin (ed). The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology: Based on H.J. Roses Handbook of Greek Mythology. London: Routledge, 2003. Print.Smith, William, and G.E. Marindon, eds. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. London: John Murray, 1904. Print.Susan, R. Bowers. Medusa and the Female Gaze. NWSA Journal 2.2 (1990): 217–35. Print.

The Cost Of Health Care Services Essay - 1498 Words

The LCH model posits that people save when income is greater than the resources needed to meet current consumption and that people borrow when income is insufficient. The basic model of the LCH, however, does not explicitly consider financial shocks, such as an unexpected health condition and the corresponding impact to savings or the accumulation of debt. Debt associated with a home or car loan is viewed as a necessity while credit card debt is frequently viewed as excessive spending; but in reality, those in severe credit card debt are often those who have experienced a recent job loss and/or health problems (Drentea Lavrakas, 2000). As people age, their health care needs begin to change. An increase in the consumption of health care services may require the allocation of additional household resources to health care costs not covered by insurance and depleted savings. The increased use of health care services may also lead to increases in borrowing (Kim, Yoon, Zurlo, 2012). As m ore employers eliminate retiree health insurance coverage, retirees will have Medicare as their primary source of health care coverage. Some retirees may even have a gap in coverage if they lose their job or retire prior to the age of 65, when they become eligible for Medicare. This occurrence may lead to a significant number of consumers being exposed to a higher potential for medical debt. Financial shocks, such as medical expenses resulting from health problems, threaten an individual’sShow MoreRelatedDirect Health Care Costs For Health Services Essay726 Words   |  3 PagesDirect health care costs to health services: 1- Staffing : cardiologists 2- Training costs 3- Inpatient services and hospital admission 4- Diagnostic procedures 5- Post-operative care cost ,such as imaging services and ECG costs, and medical devices 6- Consumables : e.g. drugs, suture, dressing, gown 7- Outpatient clinic costs, follow up care, such as cardiologists visit 8- Costs of treating of side effects such as, GPs visit 9- Capital costs: spaces required to provide the new intervention 10-Read MoreHealth Care Costs For Medicare And Medicaid Services1448 Words   |  6 PagesMedicaid Services (CMS), the United States spent $3 trillion on health care in 2014 and the projected growth in health spending for 2015 – 2025 is 5.8 percent per year (Centers for Medicare Medicaid Services, 2015). The prior CMS administrator, Dr. Donald M. Berwick stated in 2011 that 20 to 30 percent of health care spending did not provide any benefit to patients (Perez, 2014). Accountable Care Organizations (ACOs) was created as a strategy to suppress the rising cost and waste of health care byRead MoreOvercoming Language Barriers Health Care : Costs And Benefits Of Interpreter Services1703 Words   |  7 Pagesmethods, utilizing the professional interpretation services yielded in a higher patient satisfaction and privacy in LEP patients. However they realized that use of RSMI method in particular provides higher satisfaction for LEP patients (RSMI 71% vs. UC 64%; P 0.05) and woul d address the language barrier in proving care to limited-English-proficient patients. Overcoming language barriers in health care: costs and benefits of interpreter services Jacobs, E. A., Shepard, D. S., Suaya, J. A., StoneRead MoreThe Rising Costs of Healthcare in the United States of America811 Words   |  3 PagesHealth care costs: on the rise again 1. Introduction Sherry Glied approaches one of the most critical and stringent issues currently tormenting the United States of America the rising cost of health care. The problem has represented a focal point on the agenda of virtually all political programs, but a solution has yet to be successfully implemented. The reasons as to why a solution is so difficult to find is pegged to the complexity of the problem itself, in the meaning that the causes of theRead MoreLowering Health Care Costs Essay1027 Words   |  5 PagesHealth care expenditures is an increasing proportion of gross domestic product (GDP) in Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development countries as its share in GDP increased by an average of nearly 2 percent annually in last 40 years. Health care expenditures in the US increased 6.2 on average annually between 1991 and 2011. 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The proportion of old people inRead MoreManaged Care Programs Defined By Merriam Webster.com Essay1540 Words   |  7 PagesManaged Care Programs Defined Managed care as defined by Merriam-Webster.com is â€Å"a system of providing health  care  (as by an HMO  or a PPO) that is designed to control costs through  managed  programs in which the physician accepts constraints on the amount charged for  medical care and the patient is limited in the choice of a physician.† While the definition is appropriate for health plans, physicians and government entities focused on cost control and utilization reduction; it does not includeRead MoreThe Patient Protection And Affordable Care Act974 Words   |  4 PagesPreventative Healthcare and Health Care Reform The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA) is a large bill concerning and affecting health care which was signed into law in 2010. The bill was brought about in attempts to eliminate health care disparities. 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In the year 2015, the National Health Expenditure was roughly $3.2 trillion dolla rs, which equates to approximatelyRead MoreCost and Quality in Healthcare1063 Words   |  4 PagesCost and Quality in Health care: Incrisis Hospital has largely been concerned with the increase in the number of calls from its patients about the quality of health care from various departments at the hospital including oncology, X-ray/lab, surgery, and emergency room departments. The health facility is an acute hospital established in 2006 and has been successful in most of its operations despite of the recent increasing discontent from its patients. As part of promoting and supporting high qualityRead MoreThe Affordable Care Act : A Catalyst For Payment And Delivery System Reform1681 Words   |  7 PagesThe fragmented and misaligned state of the U.S. health care system has become a catalyst for payment and delivery system reforms. 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The Soldier X Free Essays

In â€Å"Soldier X,† by Don Wulffson, lies a boy who was drafted into the German army at age 15. His birth name was Erik Brandt, but after his second battle in Russia, he switched his clothes with a Russian Soldier to stay alive. When he entered the enemy lines, he was known to others as Aleksandr Dukhanov, serial number K487944. We will write a custom essay sample on The Soldier X or any similar topic only for you Order Now Two Hundred Twentieth Armored Division. But, he hated being called that. So, Nikolai Mikhailovich, his friend (the injured man who lost both of his legs and was the patient right next to X), came up with a new name for him. X. He meets nurses named Tamara, Katrina, and Zoya. There was a mental patient, who pretended to be the hospital’s only guard was named, Sergio. When the Germans attack the hospital’s town, all the patients, doctors, and nurses try to escape to another field hospital. But, as the trucks left, Katrina was shot. X, Tamara, Zoya, and Sergio were knocked out of the truck. They ran. But, Zoya died along the way. Then, later on, Sergio was shot by a German. X and Tamara, continued on their journey, making friends and making enemies. The journey they take is their only way to find their freedoms. First, does war bring out the best in some people and the worst in others? Yes, war does bring out the best in people. When a bomb might’ve exploded a building, some people might run in and see if there is anybody still alive and help them. But, that doesn’t mean war doesn’t bring the worst in people either. People react to war in different ways. Some might react the right way and become better people then they were before. Or they might react in the wrong way and become a horrible person then they were before. When in war, soldiers might fight for the right thing and some might fight for the wrong thing. Some soldiers might fight for what they love. Their families and friends or the people who love them back. Or they fight for themselves. Not thinking of others in any way. Sometimes people could change for the better. Or sometimes people could change for the worse. In â€Å"Soldier X†, when Tamara and X were injured from escaping the hospital attack, they walked for days. They went up to a house and the father wouldn’t help them, but their daughter gave bread and apples to them. Then when the got to a town Klatovy, Czechoslovakia, a car went by. They asked for help and the lady named, Elena Novak let them stay in her home until her hometown was attacked by the Russians and the Germans. She gave the food, water and a place to sleep. A quote to support my thinking is, â€Å"Tamara got to her feet. She was bone-thin, pale, and wheezing. ‘You’re ill,† said the women in her sort of lilting German. I leaned forward, down to the open window. ‘Please help us,’ I said. ‘We are so tired and hungry and we can’t think straight anymore.’ ‘Who are you?’ ‘We are from a medical unit,’ I answered. ‘I don’t know where any of the others are. I think most of them are dead.’ Little blue eyes in a big pink face looked us over. Gear shifted raggedly. ‘Well, we can’t have you dead, too!’ she said. ‘Come, come. Get in the car.’ We got in.† (p.176-p.177) Even though there was a war going on around Elena Novak’s home, she still gave others a home as well. Even though she didn’t know X or Tamara, she still knew that it was the right thing to do. The right thing to do was help them. In the beginning of the book, after X and the other German soldiers were defeated by the Russians, Russian soldiers would go and stab either the dead or wounded of the enemy. Making sure that the Germans were dead. A quote from the book to support my thinking, â€Å"I heard someone pleading in German—then another shot. I belly-crawled a half meter and peered out. What I saw sickened me and terrified me. A Russian officer was methodically seeking out the German wounded and shooting them. A lumbering oaf of a foot soldier, using a bayonet, was dispatching other Germans. He seemed to be enjoying what he was doing. And many of those he was bayoneting looked already dead; he was just making sure.† (p. 74)When X was in the hospital, X met a blurring friend named Nikolai. Nikolai later lost both of his legs. He was like the father X never had. When X left the hospital, he left his father-figure behind. X also met two nurses who were his friends. Katrina and Zoya. They were the ones who let Tamara stay in their house. When they were killed, those were the pieces of Tamara that she could never forget. Sergio, the pretend guard of the hospital made it out of the Hospital attack but was killed by a German during their journey. Even though in his mind he was gone, he still had good intentions in helping X and Tamara survive. Elena, who gave them a place to call home for a few days was the person who really made the impact on their journey. If X and Tamara hadn’t met Elena, they probably wouldn’t have completed their journey to their freedo ms. But, they also met a blurring enemy. Before they met Elena, they needed food and water. So, when they were in line. How to cite The Soldier X, Papers

Corporate Governance in ICT

Question: Discuss about the Corporate Governance in ICT. Answer: Introduction: At the Leal technology, it is found that, the company provides network and system security services and has a formal IT governance setup. This company is an ESET managed Security service provider that provides the security to its customers with the help of ESET NOD32 software. Therefore, as the new threats are detected that are harmful for the clients system, the services will alert the clients. The formal IT governance set up will be helpful in providing proper services to the clients thus achieving the corporate objectives using proper use of the available IT infrastructure. As I am working as an intern at Leal Technology Company, i have the responsibility of installing software applications on workstations and servers. In course of completing my duties, I came across a situation where i have to install software that will help in the authentication process inside the organization. This application meant to be running all the time in background and allow access to the client records only after the successful completion of the authentication process. The installation of this specific application is done in accordance with the Australian standard of ICT (AS8015). The main objective of the above mentioned Australian standard is to manage the security of the IT infrastructure at the organization. The installed application completes the following functionalities, The application ensures and enforces the confidentiality of the client and business data stored 8n the database servers. It makes sure that. The data is available only to the intended users and authorities. The software is also ensures the integrity of the database system at Leal technology company by keeping track of the log in and sign outs by the different officials. In addition to that, it also keeps track of the document or data that are being viewed or modified by the different people who logged in to the system at different times As a part of my internship, I have to manage and optimize the performance of the client's record keeping database server. I have the responsibility to maintain all the record with the highest possible level of accuracy. This responsibility of keeping the records with accuracy is developed in compliance with the Public records act 2002. The purpose of managing the database with the compliance of the Public records act 2002 is to deliver the following functionalities The records must be retained and identified in an easily accessible format, so that whenever required the records can be instantly reported to the government and regulatory authorities. A system at the organization is maintained for the identification and destruction of the records that are consuming unnecessary storage. On the other hand this system will be helpful in safeguarding the information that is considered as asset to Leal Technology Company. Different business activities, organizational activities and community development activities must be tracked according to the guidelines of the above mentioned public record rule. The system should streamline the processes of retention and disposal of the records of the business of Leal Technology Company. Bibliography Austlii.edu.au. (2016).PUBLIC RECORDS ACT 2002. [online] Available at: https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/qld/consol_act/pra2002153/ [Accessed 5 Nov. 2016]. Feltus, C., 2012. Introducing ISO/IEC 38500: Corporate Governance in ICT.ITSMF Jaarcongres 2008, pp.27-28.

Brief History of Tajikistan free essay sample

The Tajik people came under Russian rule in the 1860. Tajikistan became an autonomous Soviet socialist republic within Uzbekistan in 1924; Basmachi resistance in the wake of the Russian Revolution of 1917 was quelled in 1925, and Tajikistan became one of the component Soviet socialist republics in 1929 called Tadzhik SSR from 1936 to 1991. Tajikistan gained independence in 1991, and has experienced three changes in government and a civil war since then. A peace agreement among rival factions was signed in 1997 but its implementation has progressed slowly. Pre-Islamic Period (600 BC–AD 651) Tajikistan was part of the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex in the Bronze Age, candidate for Proto-Indo-Iranian or Proto-Iranian culture. Tajikistan was part of Scythia in Classical Antiquity. Most of modern Tajikstan had formed parts of ancient Kamboja and Parama Kamboja kingdoms, which find references in the ancient Indian epics like the Mahabharata. Linguistic evidence, combined with ancient literary and inscriptional evidence has led many eminent Indologists to conclude that ancient Kambojas (an Avestan speaking Iranain tribe) originally belonged to the Ghalcha-speaking area of Central Asia. We will write a custom essay sample on Brief History of Tajikistan or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Achariya Yasakas Nirukta [1] (7th c BCE) attests that verb Savati in the sense to go was used by only the Kambojas. It has been shown that the modern Ghalcha dialects, Valkhi, Shigali, Sriqoli, Jebaka (also called Sanglichi or Ishkashim), Munjani, Yidga and Yagnobi, mainly spoken in Pamirs and countries on the headwaters of the Oxus, still use terms derived from ancient Kamboja Savati in the sense to go [2]. The Yagnobi dialect spoken in Yagnobi province around the headwaters of Zeravshan valley in Sogdiana, also still contains a relic Su from ancient Kamboja Savati in the sense to go [3]. Further, Sir G Grierson says that the speech of Badakshan was a Ghalcha till about three centuries ago when it was supplanted by a form of Persian [4]. Thus, the ancient Kamboja, probably included the Badakshan, Pamirs and northern territories including Yagnobi province in the doab of the Oxus and Jaxartes [5]. On the east it was bounded roughly by Yarkand and/or Kashgar, on the west by Bahlika (Uttaramadra), on the northwest by Sogdiana, on the north by Uttarakuru, on the southeast by Darada, and on the south by Gandhara. Numerous Indologists locate original Kamboja in Pamirs and Badakshan and the Parama Kamboja further north, in the Trans-Pamirian territories comprising Zeravshan valley, north up parts of Sogdhiana/Farganain the Sakadvipa or Scythia of the classical writers [6]. Thus, in the pre-Buddhist times (7th/6th c BCE), the parts of modern Tajikstan including territories as far as Zeravshan valley in Sogdiana formed parts of ancient Kamboja and the Parama Kamboja kingdoms when it was ruled by Iranian Kambojas till it became part of Achaemenid Empire. Sogdiana, Bactria, Merv and Khorezm were the four principal divisions of Ancient Central Asia inhabited by the ancestors of the present-day Tajiks. Tajiks are now found only in historic Bactria and Sogdiana. Merv is inhabited by the Turkoman and Khorezm by Karakalpaks, Uzbeks and Kazakhs. The Sogdians were famous for being tall, massive, and of a fair colour, possibly resembling the Scythians. Among them Bactria and Khorezm were kingdoms during different period of history unlike Sogdiana and Merv which were geographical locations and vassals of different kingdoms. Sogdiana was made up of the Zeravshan and Kashka-Darya river valleys. Currently, One of the surviving peoples of Sogdiana who speak a dialect of the Sogdian language are the Yaghnobis and Shugnanis who live in the Northern region of Tajikistan around the Zeravshan valley. Bactria was located in northern Afghanistan (present-day Afghan Turkestan) between the mountain range of the Hindu Kush and the Amu Darya (Oxus) River and some areas of current south Tajikistan. During different periods, Bactria was a center of various Kingdoms or Empires, and is probably where Zoroastrianism originated. The Avestathe holy book of Zoroastrianismwas written in the old-Bactrian dialect; it is also thought that Zoroaster was most likely born in Bactria. Khorezm was a powerful Kingdom during some periods of its history, and is located south-east of the Aral Sea in what archeological discoveries indicated used to be a very fertile area. Merv is located in the Amu-Darya basin south of Khorezm. Achaemenid Period (550 BC–329 BC) During the Achaemenid period, Sogdiana was one of the provinces of the Persian empire. Among the cities of Tajikistan, Panjakent and Istarawshan are founded in that period. Hellenistic Period (329 BC–90 BC) For more details on this topic, see Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. Map of Alexanders empire. Map of Alexanders empire. After the Persian Empire was defeated by Alexander the Great, Bactria, Sogdiana and Merv, being part of Persian Empire, had to defend themselves from new invaders. In fact, the Macedonians faced very stiff resistance under the leadership of Sogdian ruler Spitamenes. Alexander the Great managed to marry Roxana, the daughter of a local ruler, and inherited his land. Following Alexanders brief occupation, the Hellenistic successor states of the Seleucids and Greco-Bactrians controlled the area for another 200 years in what is known as the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. During the time period from 90 BC to 30 BC, the Eastern Scythians destroyed the last Hellenistic successor states and, together with the Tocharians, (to whom they were closely related) created a Kushan Empire around 30 AD. [edit] Kushan Empire (30 BC–AD 410) For another 400 years, until AD 410, the Kushan Empire was a major power in the region along with the Roman Empire, the Parthian Empire and the Han Empire (China). Notable contact was made with local peoples when the envoys of the Han Dynasty journeyed to this area in the second century BC. At the end of the Kushan period, the Empire became much smaller and would have to defend itself from the powerful Sassanid Empire that replaced the Parthian Empire. The famous Kushan Shah Kanishka promoted Buddhism and during this ime Buddhism was exported from Central Asia to China. [edit] The Hephthalites (AD 410–565) The Hephthalites are considered to be another Scythian-related tribe although there is controversy about their name (which means White Hun) which normally refers to Mongolian-Turkish invaders. As later archeologists discovered, there are many factors that proved that Hephthalites were a bunch of many tribes with different origins. That means they were Turks, Mongols and some lesser scythian tribes that were turkizised (mostly by language). Their language was a Turkish dialect. In Bactria, their administrative language was the bactrian language. The Hephthalites were destroyed in 565 AD by a combination of Sassanid and Kok-Turk forces. [edit] Gokturk Rule (565–658) The origin of the Gokturks is uncertain, but it seems likely that they had lived to the South of the Altai Mountains until the year 542 AD. Chinese sources suggest that they were descended from the Huns and located to the North of them. (The Huns being another proto-Turkish tribe). [edit] Islamic Empires (710–1218) [edit] Arab Caliphate (710–867) The Age of the Caliphs Prophet Mohammad, 622-632 Patriarchal Caliphate, 632-661 Umayyad Caliphate, 661-750 The Age of the Caliphs Prophet Mohammad, 622-632 Patriarchal Caliphate, 632-661 Umayyad Caliphate, 661-750 The Transoxiana principalities never formed a viable confederacy. Beginning in 651 AD, the Arabs organized periodic marauding raids deep into the territory of Transoxania, but it was not until the appointment of Ibn Qutaiba as Governor of Khorasan in 705 AD, during the reign of Walid I, that the Caliphate adopted the policy of annexing the lands beyond the Oxus. In 715 AD, the task of annexation was accomplished. The entire region thus came under the control of the Caliph and of Islam, but the Arabs continued to rule through local Soghdian Kings and dihqans. The ascension of the Abbasids to rule the Caliphate (750 1258) opened a new era in the history of Central Asia. While their predecessors the Umayyads (661 750) were little more than leaders of a loose confederation of Arab tribes, the Abbasids set out to build a huge multi-ethnic centralized state that would emulate and perfect the Sassanian government machine. They gave the Near East and Transoxiana a unity, which they had been lacking since the time of Alexander the Great. [edit] Samanid Empire (900–999) For many years before the Arab invasion, Central Asia was divided into many different regions such as the Kingdom of Merv, Sogdiana, Bactria, Khorezm, Badakhshan: the only exception was Kushan Empire that was now reduced to parts of eastern Iran. Islam spread rapidly in Transoxiana. The new religion was received mostly by popular acclaim, for it promised greater social mobility and created favourable conditions for trade. With Islam there came Arabic that became the language of Abbasid court. It must also have stimulated the emergence of the Modern Persian language (Dari), in which the share of loan-words from Arabic fluctuated from 10 percent in the vocabulary of Rudaki (9th to 10th centuries) to 40 percent in the writings of Baihaqi (11th century). All in all, the volume of Arabic lexicon, its share in the vocabulary of the Dari language remained exceptionally high until the first quarter of the nineteenth century. The Samanid dynasty that ruled (819–1005) in Khorasan (Eastern Iran) and Transoxiana was founded by Saman Khuda . The Samanids were one of the first purely indigenous dynasties to rule in Persia following the Muslim Arab conquest. Not until the reign (892–907) of Saman Khudas great-grandson, Ismail I (khown as Ismail Samani), did Samanid power become extensive. In 900, Ismail defeated the Saffarids in Khorasan (area of current Northwest Afghanistan and northeastern Iran), while his brother was the governor of Transoxiana. Thus, Samanid rule was acclaimed over the combined regions. The cities of Bukhara (the Samanid capital) and Samarkand became centres of art, science, and literature; industries included pottery making and bronze casting. After 950, Samanid power weakened, but was briefly revitalized under Nuh II, who ruled from 976 to 997. However, with the oncoming encroachment of Muslim Turks into the Abbasid Empire, the Samanids were effectively defeated; in 999, Bukhara fell under a combined force of Ghaznavids and Qarakhanids. Ismail II (d. 1005), the last ruler of the dynasty, briefly fought (1000–1005) to retain Samanid territory, until he was assassinated. Although short during this period art and science of the Tajiks flourished, and many scholars of this period are still very highly regarded, notably Ibn Sina (Avicenna). The modern state of Tajikistan considers that the Tajik name and identity, although in existence for thousands of years in this area, began its formation during the Samanid period. The attack of the Qarakhanid Turks ended the Samanids reign and Samanid era civilization in 999 and dominance in Transoxiana passed on to Turkic rulers for nine centuries to come. [edit] Qarakhanids (999–1211) and Khwarezmshahs (1211–1218) After the collapse of Samanid Dynasty, Central Asia became the battleground of many Asian invaders who came from the north-east. [edit] The Mongols and their successors (1218–1740) [edit] Mongol Empire (1218–1370) The Mongol Empire swept through Central Asia invaded Khorezm and sacked the cities of Bukhara and Samarkand, looting and massacring people everywhere. edit] Timurid Empire (1370–1506) Timur, founder of the Timurid Empire, was born on 8 April 1336 in Kesh near Samarkand. He was a member of the Turkicized Barlas tribe, a Mongol subgroup that had settled in Transoxiana after taking part in Genghis Khans son Chagatais campaigns in that region. Timur began his life as a bandit leader. During this period, he r eceived an arrow-wound in the leg, as a result of which he was nicknamed Timur-e Lang (in Dari) or Timur the Lame, corrupted in the West to Tamerlane. Although the last Timurid ruler of Herat, Badi az Zaman finally fell to the armies of the Uzbek Muhammad Shaibani Khan in 1506, the Timurid ruler of Ferghana, Zahir-ud-Din Babur, survived the collapse of the dynasty and re-established the Timurid dynasty in India in 1526, where they became known as the Mughals. [edit] Shaybanid rule (1506–1598) The Shaybanid state was divided into appanages between all male members (sultans) of the dynasty, who would designate the supreme ruler (Khan), the oldest member of clan. The seat of Khan was first Samarkand, the capital of the Timurids, but some of the Khans preferred to remain in their former appanages. Thus Bukhara became the seat of the khan for the first time under Ubaid Allah Khan (r. 1533-1539). [edit] The Astrakhanid (Janid) dynasty (1598–1740) The period of political expansion and economical prosperity was short-lived. Soon after the death of Abd Allah Khan the Shaibanid dynasty died out, to be replaced by the Janid or Astrakhanid (Ashtarkhanid) dynasty, another branch of the descendants of Jochi whose founder was related through marriage to Abd Allah Khan. edit] Persian and Bukharan rule (1740–1920) [edit] Afsharid dynasty (1740–1756) In 1740, the Janid khanate was conquered by Nadir Shah, the Afsharid ruler of Persia. The Janid khan Abu al Faiz retained his throne, becoming Nadirs vassal. [edit] Manghit dynasty (1756–1920) After the death of Nadir Shah in 1747, the chief of the Manghit tribe, Muhammad Rahim Biy A zaliq, overcame his rivals from other tribes with the support of the urban population, consolidated his rule in the Khanate of Bukhara, and was proclaimed khan in 1756. His successor, however, ruled in the name of puppet khans of Janid origin. The third Manghit ruler, Shah Murad (r. 1785–1800), finally deposed the Janids and acceded to the throne himself. He did not assume the title of khan, preferring the title emir, as did subsequent Manghit rulers, because they were not of Genghisid descent. The Emirate of Bukhara was smaller under the Manghits than the khanate under their predecessors; it lost important provinces to the south of Amu Darya and the Syr Darya basin, and Merv, conquered by Shah Murad in 1785–1789, was lost in 1823. Under the Manghits, the administration of the country was more centralized. edit] Modern History: 1800s–Present [edit] Russian Vassalage (1868–1920) Conflict with Russia started in 1865, shortly after Russian conquest of Tashkent. Being more technologically advanced the Russians had little difficulty in conquering the regions inhabited by Tajiks, meeting fierce resistance only at Jizzakh, Ura-Tyube, and when their garrison at Samarkand was besieged in 1868 by forces from Shahr-e Sabz and the inhabitants of the city. The army of the Emirate of Bukhara was utterly defeated in three battles, and on 18 June 1868 Amir Muzaffar al Din (r. 860-1885) signed a peace treaty with the Governor-general of Russian Turkestan, Konstantin Petrovich Von Kaufman. Samarkand and the Upper Zeravshan were annexed by Russia and the country was opened to Russian merchants. The emir retained his throne as a vassal of Russia and made up his territorial losses by establishing, with Russian help, control over Shahr-e Sabz, and the mountainous regions in the upper Zeravshan Valley in 1870 and by annexing the principalities of the western Pamir in 1895. At the end of August 1920 the last emir, Sayyid Alim Khan, was overthrown as a result of the invasion f the emirate by Soviet troops, and on 6 October the emirate was abolished and the Bukharan Peoples Soviet Republic proclaimed. [edit] Soviet Rule (1920–1991) The national-administrative divisions placed the ancient Tajik cities, Bukhara and Samarkand, outside the Tajikistan SSR when the borders were drawn in 1928. As citizens of the Uzbek SSR, many Tajiks came under pressure to conform to their newly-ascribed Uzbek identity, and under threat of exile or worse for nonconformity, many were forced to change their identity. Tajik schools were closed and Tajiks were not appointed to leadership positions simply because of their ethnicity. [edit] Tajikistan (1991-Present day) In the last years of the Soviet Union (1986-1990), the Tajikistan SSR went through numerous positive changes due to mass protests and the initiative of a few notable members of the Majlisi Oli (Verkhovniy Soviet) or Parliament, which led the movement towards independence. During this time, use of the Tajik language, an official language of the Tajikistan SSR next to Russian, was increasingly promoted. Ethnic Russians, who had held many governing posts[citation needed], lost much of their influence and more Tajiks became politically active. Prominent independence movement leaders, also known as the Opposition, emerged. The Opposition led the mass protests in the capital city of Dushanbe and in August 1991 forced the ethnic Tajik Communist president K. Makhkamov to resign. The victory of Rahmon Nabiyev, another ethnic Tajik representative of the old guard from Soviet times, at the following presidential elections was disputed by a mixed opposition composed of nationalist liberals and Islamists. The political disagreements were an expression of the power struggle between different ethnic and regional groups, with people from the regions of Garm and Gorno-Badakhshan trying to wrestle power from hitherto dominant representatives of Leninabad and, to a lesser extent, Kulyab. [7] External influences, especially from Afghanistan, Uzbekistan[citation needed] and Russia[citation needed] also played a role. The increasingly violent clashes between the opposition and the government culminated in the Civil war in Tajikistan (1992-1997), in which the country was plunged into chaos and ethnic hostilities and at least one hundred thousand people were killed. [8][9] As a consequence of the war, after having been run by Leninabadis (people from the Khujand region) throughout the Soviet period,[10] Tajikistan is now almost entirely controlled by Kulyabis, from the home region of President Rakhmonov. Numerous notable individuals were murdered during the war and throughout the 1990s. This list includes journalist and politician Otakhon Latifi, journalist and Jewish leader Clayton Kirk, and politician Safarali Kenjayev. Since 1991, much of the countrys non-Muslim population, including Russians and Jews, has emigrated due to severe poverty and instability. In 1992, most of the country’s Jewish population was evacuated to Israel. Nevertheless, a number of opposition political parties have been legalized and are participating in elections, suggesting that the country may be stabilizing politically. Russian-led peacekeeping troops are based throughout the country[citation needed] (apart from their officers, most of these troops are, in fact, Tajiks), and Russian-commanded border guards were stationed along the border with Afghanistan until 2006. [11] In the winter of 2007/2008, Tajikistan faced, and is currently still facing, an energy crisis. A combination of one of the harshest winters in 50 years, frozen hydroelectric reservoirs, and a cut in natural gas imports from Uzbekistan on January 24 has led to this crisis.

Free Essays on Sister Kate

Jean Bedford portrays the women as victims in ‘Sister Kate’. Do you agree? Discuss with detailed reference to the text. The women are portrayed in the novel ‘Sister Kate’ as victims of society and especially men. The author of the novel, Jean Bedford, is an active feminist and uses the characters in the novel to express her views on 19th Century working-class women. The text suggests that men are continuously degrading the females in the workplace and in their own homes. Police officers were constantly harassing the Kelly women when the men were gone. The women were expected to stay home and look after the house and the large numbers of children while the men were out working, stealing or just having fun. The majority of the women had dull lives due to family commitments (which the men were exempt from) and limited employment opportunities. All of the lower class women in the novel tend to be housewives, barmaids or prostitutes. Jean Bedford really stresses the point that women had no rights as employees, if they somehow managed to get a job. When Kate Kelly obtained a job at the Hotel she was told she was on ‘half wages, while you’re learning’. When she asked Ivy, a fellow barmaid, how long it would take before she was paid full wages, ‘Ivy looked around shiftily. She was not paid the full rate herself.’ Even though they despised it, most of the women in the bar had to sell their bodies after work to make enough money to live on. Prostitution became almost a routine for some of the girls in the bar. In fact Ivy kept whoring herself until she was nearly dead. Kate would often find Ivy intoxicated and ‘crumpled against a wall between the hotel and their rooms, her skirt still hitched around her waist and her hands closed tightly around the coins left by her hasty customer’. W hen Kate attended to the half-conscious and drunk woman, Ivy made ‘feeble movements towards her clothing’ and obviously thought it wa... Free Essays on Sister Kate Free Essays on Sister Kate Jean Bedford portrays the women as victims in ‘Sister Kate’. Do you agree? Discuss with detailed reference to the text. The women are portrayed in the novel ‘Sister Kate’ as victims of society and especially men. The author of the novel, Jean Bedford, is an active feminist and uses the characters in the novel to express her views on 19th Century working-class women. The text suggests that men are continuously degrading the females in the workplace and in their own homes. Police officers were constantly harassing the Kelly women when the men were gone. The women were expected to stay home and look after the house and the large numbers of children while the men were out working, stealing or just having fun. The majority of the women had dull lives due to family commitments (which the men were exempt from) and limited employment opportunities. All of the lower class women in the novel tend to be housewives, barmaids or prostitutes. Jean Bedford really stresses the point that women had no rights as employees, if they somehow managed to get a job. When Kate Kelly obtained a job at the Hotel she was told she was on ‘half wages, while you’re learning’. When she asked Ivy, a fellow barmaid, how long it would take before she was paid full wages, ‘Ivy looked around shiftily. She was not paid the full rate herself.’ Even though they despised it, most of the women in the bar had to sell their bodies after work to make enough money to live on. Prostitution became almost a routine for some of the girls in the bar. In fact Ivy kept whoring herself until she was nearly dead. Kate would often find Ivy intoxicated and ‘crumpled against a wall between the hotel and their rooms, her skirt still hitched around her waist and her hands closed tightly around the coins left by her hasty customer’. W hen Kate attended to the half-conscious and drunk woman, Ivy made ‘feeble movements towards her clothing’ and obviously thought it wa...

Just War Theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Just War Theory - Essay Example However, two problems arise when trying to justify the use of JWT in shaping the United States and allies’ strategies in Afghanistan, where it is fighting an untraditional enemy that does not share the same kind of ethical ideals. The first problem arises from the thought of each of two sides in the nontraditional war as moral agents, when one has clearly rejected the moral code the other follows. Since a moral code sets the ethical guidelines governing a community, when one party does not accept the moral code, the one that does accept the code is not obligated to follow that code. For instance, it is generally accepted that killing an animal that is known to be dangerous is ethical, insofar as doing so protects other members of the moral community from being harmed. Similarly, if a nontraditional army does not accept these rules of conduct, like the animal, it is well within the moral right of the traditional one to ensure its enemy does not harm another member of the moral community. From this assumption that militaries are moral agents, and the fact that moral codes provide the ethical guidelines for the community, an entity that does not accept the moral code is not obligated to ethical treatment accordi ng to this code. A war is nothing more than murder of other human beings; but instead of being punishable murder, it is sanctioned by states. JTW theory proposes the means by which one can create a more ethical war, but it does not address the issue of whether war itself is ethical. This relatively conservative answer to whether JTW applies to a nontraditional war is supplemented by a second problem, which is tangentially addressed in â€Å"The Call to Arms†1. This issue has to deal with the source of JTW moral prescriptions, and whether a nontraditional fighting force like that seen in Afghanistan is to be dealt with ethical principles based on notions like â€Å"Christian love† or within the tradition

Technology stratege Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Technology stratege - Term Paper Example It is in this context that technology can benefit business performance. The role of technology strategy in the development of business performance is analyzed in this study. The literature published on this subject is presented and critically discussed. Reference is made to the practical needs and implications of technology strategy as identified in Tesco and Waitrose, two major retailers in the British market. It is concluded that technology strategy can be used for supporting the growth of modern firms but only under the terms that it is carefully planned and monitored. The management of technology in modern businesses has many different aspects. In order to identify the most appropriate technology management polices for firms in different industries it is necessary to understand the role of technology within organizations. Technology has been characterized as a ‘business asset’ (Watkins 10); despite common business assets, technology is difficult to be evaluated (Watkins 10). This difficulty results by the fact that a specific technological tool, for instance, machinery, can be evaluated by referring to its ‘acquisition cost, book value or replacement value’ (Watkins 11). One of the most important characteristics of technology is its ‘re-useability’ (Watkins 11), i.e. its potential to be used in several operational activities. The above issues need to be taken into consideration by managers of organizations that have to introduce a technology strategy that will respond to all organizational needs. Particular measures should be also taken for the ‘flow control’ (Watkins 11) of the technology used across the organization. The term ‘flow control’ refers to all the tasks in which a specific business (technological) asset can be involved, either directly or indirectly. The ability of business managers to introduce appropriate

Technology Forecasting Essay

Technology Forecasting Essay The various mathematical models being used to carry out forecasts sometimes lead to significant errors. This occurs because the development of new relationships is not taken into account and possible trends changes are considered negligible. A major failure in forecasting arises from the fact that social and political issues are not taken into consideration when forecasting is carried out. It is impossible to predict the future based only on past data. The models that do that are actually excluding qualitative parameters such as the opinion of the individuals. Therefore it is essential to use a different method for dealing with these problems. According to the theory of Godet, the future is not a continuation of the past but an â€Å"outcome of the wishes of various actors and the constraints imposed on them by the environment† (Godet 1982). The configuration of prices within an energy market depends a lot on the balance between the supply and demand for energy. In order to evaluate future energy price scenarios, it is necessary to mention the parameters that affect the supply-demand balance. In 1, some typical parameters are presented. Economic growth refers only to the quantity of goods and services produced. Energy is actually the driving force that moves every economic activity. The economy can be set in motion by specific activities that convert energy from naturally sources (e.g. solar, heat, wind, running water, fossil fuels and chemicals) into forms that will be used to produce goods and services. Eventually, a high economic growth rate implies urgent needs concerning the uninterrupted supply of energy. In response to that, the infrastructure network may choose to readjust the price of energy in order to cover the demand for stable power (Alam 2006). According to Shafiee and Topal (2008), high prices might indicate the threat of a physical scarcity of fossil fuels (e.g. oil, gas). If production cost increases, then producers will try to pass this cost to customers. Eventually, the price of energy will rise. When the population increases steadily and in combination with the desire for better living conditions, the demand for energy will increase too. This leads to the requirement for additional energy production which eventually will increase prices. When an energy market is characterized by the domination of one or at least two or three suppliers, then these companies may take advantage of the surge in demand and increase prices in order to make profits and cover financial losses. Environmental taxation is a tool that can be used to meet environmental and national objectives. In the case of energy production, the pollutant will try to pass this additional cost to the customer. Eventually, the inability of the producer to comply with specific rules concerning the environment, will force the consumers to pay more for the same amount of energy. 2) Among the elements that can influence the procedure of energy price planning, there are some parameters that can be quantified, such as population, economic growth, energy consumption, type of market and greenhouse gas emissions. According to 2, three possible scenarios concerning the evolution of the earths population are presented. By taking as a typical reference point the year 2050, the difference between the final results of the three scenarios is rather large. The current population of earth according to U.S. Census Bureau (2009) is 6,792,134,536 billions. This number compared with the three different results reveals three different change rates. Table 1: (Source: United Nations 2004). Current Population Scenario High Scenario Medium Scenario Low 6.79 billions 10.6 billions 8.9 billions 7.4 billions Change concerning current situation + 56.11% + 31.07% +8.98% Taking into consideration the current population of earth and the three scenarios, someone may conclude that the low scenario is impossible to occur in the future. If something unexpected takes place (e.g. fast spread of a certain virus, war, births control etc.) slight changes may occur and the three scenarios might arise in a different form. Another parameter that can affect the future scenarios of energy pricing is the magnitude of economic growth. Economic growth is often measured through the measurement of gross domestic product (GDP).According to 3, the average annual increase for the period 1981-2008, compared to the GDP of 1980 is 1334.56%. If someone takes into account the projections indicated by the red color, the average increase for the 34 year period is 1773.29%. The PPC S.A. (2009) generates 85% of the countrys electricity and holds 91% of lignite exploitation rights in Greece. Despite the liberalization of the electricity wholesale market which started in 2001, the PPC continues to enjoy a monopoly over access to lignite (EUbusiness 2009). Partially affected by this phenomenon, the price of electricity in Greece started to rise after the so-called liberalization (RIZOSPASTIS 2002; NAFTEMPORIKI 2005; RAE 2007; Media2Day Publishing S.A. 2007; iNews.gr 2009). The emissions of carbon dioxide are a parameter that can introduce an additional cost for every country. This is because the emissions that occur from the consumption of fossil fuels, provided that they are greater than a specific limit, are accompanied by a certain amount of money that will have to be submitted by the pollutant. According to the most recent plan for the emissions rights from 2008 to 2012, the following limits/emissions rights are attributed to the sector of electricity generation (Voutsadakis 2008): Total quantity: 328 million tones of carbon dioxide Electricity generation sector: 230 million tones of carbon dioxide PPC: 220 million tones of carbon dioxide If the structure of the electricity generation sector in Greece remains the same, beginning from 2013, 2.2 billion euros will have to be submitted for purchasing additional emissions rights. This is equal to 35 more euros for every MWh produced. Consequently the price of electricity will increase by approximately 45% compared to the current prices (Voutsadakis 2008). As mentioned in section 1, numerous parameters, some of which can easily be quantified, have to be taken into account in order to form future scenarios concerning the price of energy. Godet in â€Å"La Prospective† (Godet 1982) emphasizes on the lack of a global and qualitative approach concerning the forecasting process. Although quantitative methods are characterized by a high reliability, especially in short term forecasts, in the case of long time periods quantitative methods present many blind spots. This is justified by the fact that in a long time period, the probability for a person to face unexpected events is rather high. For this reason, it is not proper to depend only on mathematical methods to make forecasts. What is needed is a combination of both quantitative and qualitative methods. This is exactly what Godet (1982) proposes in his written work. Price of energy can not be cut off from the existence of phenomena, that even though can not be easily quantified, do affect in a significant level any action related to the energy scheme. For this reason, I totally accept the view of Godet, according to which forecasting apart from numbers should be based partially on assumptions, insight and judgment; each one of these factors depend a lot on the opinion of the individual. Experience curves can make accurate estimates about the evolution of technology cost. This requires the inclusion of the methodology limitations. Once the limitations are taken into account, experience curves can be an effective tool for every private or public firm dealing with technology issues. Experience curves describe the relation between past costs and cumulated production. This way it is possible for someone to estimate future costs through the extrapolation method. An important observation is that in order to obtain reliable experience curves, it is essential to apply the specific method to a wide set of cost-cumulative production numbers. Otherwise, the forecasts will be of low reliability. On the other hand, even when the learning curve is evaluated over a wide range of data, relatively dissimilar fits of the same set of numbers are possible to occur; each one of them is equally justifiable. The conclusion is that the output of a process can be described as the total of a procedure through which experience is gained and one for which no cost reductions occur. The experience gained from individual components explains why experience curves usually bend towards the horizontal axis; this indicates the slowdown of the cost change when a technology matures (Ferioli et al. 2009). The use of experience curves based on a single countrys data might designate many difficulties and uncertainties. When dealing with specific sectors of the energy market (e.g. wind energy) a global industry analysis is more useful; especially when someone is trying to forecast global cost issues related to the energy market (Junginger 2001). As mentioned in the first paragraph of this section, limitations of experience curves have to be taken into account. First of all, lets mention the advantages of this tool (Neij et al. 2003). 1. Experience curves describe how cost declines with cumulative production; the curve emphasizes the need of experience to realize cost reductions. It clearly illustrates that RDD programs cannot stand alone. 2. Experience curves can be used as a support in strategic decisions. 3. Experience curves can be used to analyze the effect of combined policy measures in terms of installed units and cost reductions. 4. Experience curves can be used to investigate the existence of national and international systems through which experience is possible to be obtained. 5. Experience curves can assist many individuals, such as financial analysts, industry, researchers and policy makers, in analyzing and assessing strategies and policy measures. Correspondingly, the limitations of the experience curves are the following (Neij et al. 2003): The success of this method depends on high-quality data. Unfortunately, uncertainty is an element that dominates in the international literature. Constructing trustworthy experience curves requires a basic understanding of the technology in question. In order to avoid misinterpretation during data analysis, specialists should be asked for their opinion before drawing any conclusions from experience curve analysis. Experience curves are a tool that must be combined with other methods of analysis of cost reduction sources. Even when a vast amount of data is available, it is possible to draw just conclusions on an aggregated level. For a detailed analysis, other data and tools are required. Experience curves do not show the effects of individual parameters, but the combined effect of several elements. The analysis of individual parameters requires additional analysis tools. The limitations of the experience curves arise from data availability. Due to their limitations complementary methods should also be taken into account. Experience curves should be considered as a generic tool for energy technology analysis. Technological forecasting is an effective tool in setting technology strategies. A large number of techniques have been evolved for technological forecasting. The quality of forecasts depends on the selected techniques. The selection can affect the accuracy and reliability of the forecast. According to Levary and Han (1995), a good choice of forecasting method should be based on the following factors: * Data availability * Degree of data validity * Number of variables affecting technology development * Degree of similarity between proposed technology and existing technologies According to the international literature, the elements that reduce the efficiency and accuracy of technological forecasting are the following (Mishra et al. 2002): Insufficiencies of Technological Forecasting I. Limitations of Quantitative Techniques  · Adaptability to current rate of technology change is low. * Many degrees of freedom in a rapid changing environment are difficult to address. * Complex mathematical models are difficult to comprehend and practice. * Accuracy, stability and reliability are negatively affected by long-term forecasts. * Lack of adequate past data. II. Limitations of Qualitative Techniques (Exploratory)  · Definition and selection of experts is difficult. * Individual bias enters into subjective assessment methods. * Validity of assumptions in scenario development tends to be uncertain with time. * Social, political and economic factors are usually neglected. * Sharp disruptions in trends and unexpected events are usually avoided. * Forecasts are sometimes carried out by someone who belongs to a specific organization. III. Limitations of Qualitative Techniques (Normative)  · The chosen data may be conveniently selected to fit a particular technology. * Technology at the bottom of the tree may be preconceived. IV. Human Related Problems with Forecasters * Selection of forecasters team is not correct. * There is a tendency to avoid information gathering and scanning prior to forecast. * Some forecasters lack imagination and/or nerve. V. Problems in Selection of Techniques * Monitoring prior to selection is lacking. * Validation of one technique by another is not carried out to reduce subjectivity. * Techniques do not incorporate performance measures. * Failures are not considered during the forecasts. According to the previous issues, the process of forecasting will deliver low reliability results if the limitations are not restricted. In order to improve the accuracy of technological forecasts, one of the issues that need to be addressed is the proper selection of technique. Apart from this, the complexity of technology has to be taken into account as well. Finally, in order to increase the validity of the results of the selected technique, it is recommended to use another technique; this will increase the reliability of the forecast (Mishra et al. 2002). It is generally accepted between forecast researchers that the combination of methods improves forecast accuracy (Mackay and Metcalfe 2002). Experts having access to high quality data and by taking into account the previously mentioned issues are able to make relatively high accuracy forecasts concerning the evolution in the sector of technology. On the other hand, someone may wonder how come people with no expertise in a specific technological sector, have the ability to make, most of the time, an almost accurate forecast about the technological changes that will occur in the future. There are many experiments carried out in various scientific areas that justify the ability of non-experts to make an accurate prediction. A research carried out by Austin Grigg, involved specialists, trainees and people with little to none expertise. The result of the experiment was the negligible difference (in favor of the experts) in the accuracy of the prediction between the specialists and the people with little knowledge (Armstrong 1980). This phenomenon is justified by the fact that people who do not have the necessary experience and tools for a scientific forecast, depend mainly on their insight (including myself) when they are asked to make a prediction. In the third section of this assessment project, the importance of the qualitative parameters was accepted. The most significant part of the qualitative element in a forecasting process is the insight. Its about the ability to predict something, not by depending on mathematical models and numbers, but on the identification of relationships and behaviors within a model, context, or scenario (Reay 2009). Therefore, when an individual is fully aware of the interactions among the qualitative parameters, that affect the evolution of an under-study issue and the issue itself, then a prediction carried out by this individual will have a high reliability degree, concerning the proper use and explanation of the qualitative data. The chosen case study for this section is the California electricity crisis of 2000 and 2001. The deregulation of the electricity market in California was expected to reduce the high retail prices of electricity. The result was exactly the opposite compared to the initial purpose; wholesale prices increased even more, customers experienced interruptions in supply of energy and utilities bankrupted. Among the crisis roots, the following factors are included:  · The absence of additional generating capacity.  · The unexpected dry season and spikes in natural gas prices (California was greatly depended on the operation of hydro plants and natural gas).  · The market infrastructure allowed power generation firms to control wholesale prices in the power exchange market.  · The delay and inability of regulators to predict the crisis and appropriate respond to this phenomenon. In 4.2, someone may observe that power plant outages increased during the crisis period; this affected in a high degree the magnitude of blackouts that customers experienced. The yellow strip bars indicate an average increase of 8759 MW for the months January, March and May of 2001 compared to the corresponding months of 1999 and 2000. According to 7, the dawn of deregulation indicates a rather smooth trend concerning the evolution of wholesale market prices; what was expected to occur had nothing to do with the sharp increase of prices that took place after that period. The increase in retail prices ( 8-2001 to 2003) was not expected, either because the deregulation was expected to establish low prices or because past data indicated that low prices ( 8-red dots) were likely to occur in the years to come. A key point, totally irrelevant to statistical data and concerning the flaws of forecasting techniques applied before the incident of California, will be analyzed in the next lines. When the State and the regulators of California implemented the deregulation system that was successfully adopted first by other countries (Woo et al. 2003), they proceeded in specific changes (e.g. imposition of retail price caps, partial deregulation) without trying to carry out a detailed study about the complex Californian energy scheme. In other words, what might had been successful somewhere else, it was considered as a guaranteed success in the case of California. Additionally, if the adjustment of energy market infrastructure and potential manipulations had been taken into account by examining the validity of alternative scenarios concerning the risk of deregulating the Californian electricity market, certain mechanisms able to respond to a future crisis would have probably been developed. According to the previous comments, it is obvious that forecasting methods that rely exclusively on historical data trends, they ignore the opinion of individuals and do not take into account the conditions that prevail in the environment where the under-analysis phenomenon develops. Thus, any forecasts made are of low validity and reliability. The following table contains the data for the installed nuclear capacity between 1965 and 1985. These data have been highlighted with the green color. Table 2: (Source: Nuclear Energy Agency n.d.). Years Installed Capacity (GW) 1965 5 1970 16 1975 72 1980 136 1985 253 1990 326 1995 345 2000 352 2002 359 2005 368 By using the available data of table 2, the period 1965-1985 will be used as a reference time (instead of 1967-1987). Respectively, predictions will be made for the period 1990-2005. Forecast method: Trend Source: Excel Years Installed Capacity (GW) 1965 5 1970 16 1975 72 1980 136 1985 253 1990 281.20 1995 342.80 2000 404.40 2002 429.04 2005 466.00 Forecast method: Linear extrapolation Source: Excel Years Installed Capacity (GW) 1965 5 1970 16 1975 72 1980 136 1985 253 1990 280.80 1995 342.40 2000 404.00 2002 428.64 2005 465.60 Forecast method: Logarithmic extrapolation Source: Excel Years Installed Capacity (GW) 1965 5 1970 16 1975 72 1980 136 1985 253 1990 282.64 1995 343.67 2000 404.55 2002 428.86 2005 465.28 Forecast method: Polynomial extrapolation Source: Excel Years Installed Capacity (GW) 1965 5 1970 16 1975 72 1980 136 1985 253 1990 ≈ 400 1995 ≈ 590 2000 ≈ 790 2002 ≈ 900 2005 ≈ 1000 It is obvious that among all the extrapolation-forecasting techniques, the one with the lowest divergence from the actual data is the logarithmic extrapolation method followed by the linear technique. On the other hand, none of the used methods was able to give high accuracy forecasts because the nuclear installed capacity evolution was highly affected by the incident of Chernobyl. The various mathematical methods can not express the fear of the scientific community to abandon the development of nuclear sector. According to 9, knowing that the incident of Chernobyl occurred in 1986, it is obvious that the rapid increase in nuclear installed capacity started to decline approximately 4 years (1990) after the incident of Chernobyl. Based on 10 and table 3, someone may conclude that the energy balance in Europe is highly depended on the operation of Gazprom. Table 3: (Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration 2008). Country 2006 % of Domestic NG Consumption Germany 37% Turkey 64% Italy 25% France 20% Czech Republic 79% Poland 47% Hungary 54% Slovakia 100% Austria 74% Finland 100% Romania 28% Bulgaria 96% Greece 82% Serbia Montenegro 87% Croatia 37% Slovenia 64% Switzerland 12% Skopje 100% According to table 3, Greece dependency on Gazproms natural gas is approximately 82%. This share indicates that a potential crisis in natural gas supply could lead to significant problems in sectors such as domestic heating and gas-fired power plants. Greece as a major energy user Greece has insignificant domestic reserves of oil and gas and relies greatly on energy imports. In 2006, the total energy consumption was 1.4 Quadrillion Btu. The distribution of this amount of energy can be located on 11. Although the share of natural in total energy consumption is not very high ( 11), the high dependency degree on Gazprom supply and the decreasing reserves of Greece in natural gas, would result in significant impacts in the energy balance of Greece. Provided that I would be somehow involved in the coordination of the energy planning of my country, I would propose the following measures. 1. Greece already has one natural gas import terminal situated at Revithoussa (DESFA 2007). The supplier is the Algerian company Sonatrach. The first thing that someone would have to do is to estimate the additional quantity that this company could provide to Greece on an annual basis. Then, proceed in reducing the imported natural gas from Gazprom by the same amount. 2. The countries currently facing problems with the natural gas supply from Russia are Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Skopje, Romania and Turkey. Partial supply decreases have also been reported by Austria (90%), Slovakia (70%), the Czech Republic (75%) and Hungary. Another solution to the problem could be the restart of Unit 3 at the Kozloduy Nuclear Power Plant. Kozloduy-3 was shutdown in December 2006 as part of an agreement with the European Union, which was concerned about inadequate safety levels. However, Bulgarias EU accession treaty apparently allows closed reactors to be temporarily re-started in the event of an acute energy shortage (Resnicoff 2009). 3. Rational use of energy, especially in sectors being supplied by natural gas, would be the last recommendation by my side. 9) The first and the third proposed measure can be characterized as a necessary but conservative approach. The proposed energy policy of Greece towards an energy crisis must ensure the energy security of the country. Taking into consideration the great dependence on energy imports in Greece, the out of the box solutions seems to be enough risky. More precisely, the improvement on the penetration of RES is a conservative and safe solution. Additionally energy efficiency and rational use of energy can be described as an incremental approach too. The out of the box solutions in the proposed response include new natural gas suppliers and improvement on energy storage capacity. The first solution is possible to lead to disturbances between Greece and Russia and the second one might require a large capital invested in various storage methods. Regardless the type of the response (out of the box or conservative-incremental approach) that someone might propose, both approaches have their merits and limitations. The adoption of a conservative approach offers a sense of security. Usually this kind of solutions can be accomplished easily due to the fact that includes measures that have been tested in previous similar situations. Also there are various limitations for this kind of approach. For instance, the increase of RES in Greek fuel mix has the following barriers. The legal framework and the authorization procedure can be described as complex procedures. In many cases this can frustrate many small investors. Another limitation is the inhibitive cost for the interconnection to the grid (mostly for reinforcement or construction of new network lines). Additionally for larger stations (more than _20MW) and in certain areas with very high wind potential there is lack of sufficient High Voltage (HV) system capacity. Due to enviro nmental restrictions and local community protests, expansion of the HV system is in some cases completely blocked. Finally, in the case of wind farms, public acceptability is also an issue in certain cases, basically due to visual impact or other reasons (Hatziargyriou, 2007). The adoption of an out o box solution in the case of an energy crisis might be risky. For this reason, this type of approach could be followed by conservative solutions ensuring that the energy security of the country will remain sufficient in any case. As it is mentioned before, Greece began receiving gas from Azerbaijan and the relative imports will likely increase as the Turkey-Greece interconnector is further utilized. This can be described as an out o box solution that can lead to imbalances between Greece and Russia, reducing the amount of Russian natural gas in Greece. On the other hand, the competition among various natural gas suppliers will have a positive effect on the corresponding energy prices. T o sum up, both approaches have advantages and disadvantages. The selection of an appropriate crisis management scheme is a complicate procedure and requires mature choices taken by veteran politicians. In addition an out o box solution for Greece may be a conservative incremental approach for another country that is an energy exporter or a country that has a stronger economy or better international relationships than Greece. 10) References Alam, S.M. (2006). Economic Growth With Energy [online]. [Accessed 24 December 2009]. Available from: . Armstrong, S.J. (1980). The Seer-Sucker Theory: The Value of Experts in Forecasting [online]. [Accessed 1 January 2010]. Available from: . Cabral, L. (2002). The California energy crisis. Japan and the World Economy [online]. 14(3), [Accessed 5 January 2010], p.335-339. Available from: . California Energy Commission (2009). Utility-wide Weighted Average Retail Electricity Prices [online]. [Accessed 6 January 2010]. Available from: . Consumer Watchdog (2002). How Deregulation Let the Power Industry Steal $71 Billion From California [online]. [Accessed 5 January 2010]. Available from: . DESFA (2007). Liquefied Natural Gas Terminal at Revythousa [online]. [Accessed 7 January 2010]. Available from: . Energy Information Administration (2009). Greece Energy Data, Statistics and Analysis Oil, Gas, Electricity, Coal [online]. [Accessed 7 January 2010]. Available from:

Mark Twain Essay

When to analyze the works of Mark Twain, it becomes clear that the author’s style is simple and direct. Indeed, the author is very successful in convening his thoughts to the reader. Henry Nash Smith, the critique of Mark Twain’s style once made a remark that Mark Twain’s style is â€Å"as close as we are likely to get to the writer’s actual experience †¦ † (Smith 19). Richard Bridgman’s evaluation of Mark Twain’s style is even clearer. The researcher puts it in the following way: â€Å"Mark Twain leads the reader to things again† (Bridgman 79). Furthermore, when to analyze Mark Twain’s style it would be fair to claim that his description of life often takes the form of mediation. This form was very rare among Mark Twain’s contemporaries. In the final outcome this very style of medication largely contributed to formation of Mark Twain’s literary style. In addition, Twain is not only a realist, he is a humorist. It means that besides depicting realistic situation, Mark Twain was quite successful in telling something humoristic. As we can see from the rest of his works, Mark Twain is able to expose â€Å"illusion and pretense and folly† (Duncan 204). Besides, as Duncan has fairly noticed he could â€Å"aid and abet the realistic enterprise† (205). Mark Twain is famous for his humor stories. To make an example, one of his most humorous and noticeable sketches is the Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County. Rich vernacular language makes the story sound even more lively and funny. Under the mask of humor the author had skillfully hidden the expression of confrontation which was observed between the East and West. The story is a representation of Twain’s unique style of writing humor stories. Mark Twain is famous for his humor stories. One of the most humorous and noticeable sketches by Mark Twain is the Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County. Rich vernacular language makes the story sound even more lively and funny. Under the mask of humor the author had skillfully hidden the expression of confrontation which was observed between the East and West. The conflict is represented through the conversation of narrator, who is Easterner himself and Simon Wheeler, who is Westerner. The very first sentence of the story sets humorous mood, moreover narrator’s suspicion that the person he was looking for was a myth makes an impression that the following story will be unrealistic and humorous. From the first meeting of Simon Wheeler sets the reader at ease by the following description: â€Å"†¦ he was fat and bald headed, and had an expression of winning gentleness and simplicity upon his tranquil countenance† (Price). One of the themes is the author’s critical view on American way to success. Jim Smily is the bright representative of an American who is making money easily by betting on different stuff like â€Å"†¦rat-terriers, and chicken cocks, and tom-cats, and all of them kind of things†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Price). Jim was betting and was winning all the time, as he was very fortunate. However, this easy money proves to be not stable, as he lost the case when he bet on his frog Dan’l. In this, simple from the first sight story, the author criticizes some of the flaws of the clergy and religion. Jim Smily was attending priest before making a bet. Furthermore, the other flaws of American society are wittily criticized by Samuel Clemens in this short story. Thus the dog possessing almost humanly features had his own talents and this metaphor is representing simple people who have their own talents too and who can be successful: â€Å"†¦ good pup, was that Andrew Jackson, and would have made a name for hisself if he’d lived, for the stuff was in him, and he had genius I know it, because he hadn’t had no opportunities to speak of, and it don’t stand to reason that a dog could make such a fight as he could under them circumstances, if he hadn’t no talent† (Price). In this short story, The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County, the author skillfully criticizes the major flaws of American society. Mark Twain is very realistic in using the words that have a direct relation to human life. The way in which the writer reveals his humor is the technique of using the cross-eyed patterns of concepts. To some extend the use of the concepts reveal Mark Twain’s personal disappointment with the system. The realist implicitly regards words as something that is related to the material value of words. An important feature of realism is that it is predicated on commonsense empiricism. As for human, it is predominately based on philosophical idealism. Paying the most careful attention to Mark Twain’s style, we can see that this author is adhering to both traditions. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain and his short story The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County are two great works which give the reader a possibility to look at American society of the nineteenth century. One has a possibility to analyze today’s situation concerning race discrimination and equality of whites and blacks with the situation which existed at the beginning of the nineteenth century in time of slavery. Initially, the discussions of Twain’s style â€Å"have been concerned exclusively with his empirical pursuit† (Duncan 201). As a result, many critiques left aside the issue of the epistemological gap that existed between both the subject and object. The only pint all literary scholars actually agree with is that vernacular style used by Mark Twain is able to bring together both realism and humanism. Mark Twain’s style is predominately focused around the issue of conveying objective reality itself. Additionally, the writer goes so far as to convey his own experience of reality. This technique of writing has been already confirmed by Smith (19). His unique style of writing is able to accomplish many important life goals. However, the main achievement of Mark Twain’s style is its capacity to convey the objective reality. The objective reality that is so skillfully used in all works of Mark Twain often brings the reader face-to-face with objective reality. Jeffrey Duncan, the author of the article â€Å"The empirical and the ideal in Mark Twain† presents the famous writer as a kind of impressionist. Instead of conveying an original experience, Mark Twain decides to connect his original experience with his humor (Duncan 207). Mark Twain’s words are direct path to the real life experience. Moreover, the humor is an inseparable part of all his works. The empirical truth he tells is not conveyed just for its own sake, but for the humoristic effect. As it was discussed above, Huckleberry Finn is the representation of the vernacular style the writer employs to present the problem more sharply. To understand Mark Twain’s style of writing better, let’s take a closer look at one of his novels which is The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. It is one of the most well-known books of his time. The book by Mark Twain is an example of literary greatness that helped people to change their views on some important issues of those times. The author is a representative of Regionalism as his novel like his many works are written using simple language ordinary people spoke with all the collocations, variations and accents of the South. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is the representation of one of the complex and progressive writings of the time when slavery was a controversy and the first issue of American Society of that time. Jim’s character is the representation of all the enslaved blacks of that time and according to the morality and laws of American society he is inferior to Huck, who is representative of white free population of America. Slavery is one of the central issues that are discussed in the book. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn depicts the way in which African Americans were perceived by the outside world. The book itself is often associated with some anger and frustration that was expressed by the author in reference to the black people. At the beginning of the story, the gap between Huck and slave Jim is enormously deep, which Huck has enough power of mind to analyze the existing stereotypes in his society and their wrongness of thinking concerning blacks: â€Å"I knowed he was white inside† (Twain 351). In my opinion the core of the problem is Mark Twain’s depiction of Jim, the black American and the protagonist of the novel. In fact, Huck’s words are negatively perceived by the contemporary critiques, who often regard the book as racist and demeaning in its nature. However, Twain’s approach to slavery issue is motivated by many reasons one of which is stereotypes or as Schmidt put it â€Å"whites’ views of rebellious slaves or postwar freemen arrogantly claiming their rights† (449). I would go so far as to say that Mark Twain showed a real attitude of the white population of the South to the black people. The same thing was accentuated with the analysis of Huck’s character that shows the author’s specific approach to black people. Huck’s approach was typical for a narrow-minded white person who was seeing African Americans as a lower race. Loyalty to Jim can be described as very shaky. It means that everything depends on the situation into which a person is placed. Also Huck cared for Jim who had a strange approach to the reality and the things that took place in the American society. However, in general, Huck was aware of the ways in which he can show his loyalty to the other people. He cared for Jim realizing that Jim is black, thus needed the â€Å"other†, dehumanized approach to his personality. However, Huck really liked this simple man and he could even go to hell, but set Jim free: â€Å"All right, then, I’ll GO to hell† (Twain 417). However, according to Schmidt this decision is ill-conceived. Further more, the author points out that protagonist’s intentions are rather â€Å"illusion that Huck’s moral choice is absolute and self-determined† (Schmidt 455). During the post-Civil War African Americans were still treated as â€Å"slaves† in American society. The release of Jim Crow laws gave many important advantages to black Americans. The review of the current laws shows that the major part of African Americans was freed by Jim Crow law. As for white people, they did not change their attitude to black Americans, and continued to see them as heartless and soulless creatures. Also, there was a tendency to picture blacks as monsters who were deprived of human feelings. Under the circumstances like these African Americans were negatively perceived by the general public, and were even feared by the American society. Also, the release of Jim Crow laws widened the gap between the whites and blacks. The analysis of the book indicates that the society of those times was actually adding problems instead of searching for the solution of these problems. The main peculiarity of the book is the dubious approach to the African American issues. As Huck has actually indicated, African Americans were more than just animals. The above mentioned words indicate on the fact hat Jim’s case was approached from the white man’s perspective. Huck analyses the situation in the following way: â€Å"I tell you gentlemen, a nigger like that is worth a thousand dollar – and kind treatment, too† (Twain 364). The situation itself has a deep meaning. Though disgraceful at the first glance, Huck’s approach to Black issue can be described as rather positive. The novel was written a few years after the slavery had been abolished between 1876 and 1883, whereas the events of the story take place before 1865. Thus Mark Twain was influenced by the changes which followed the Thirteenth Amendment and while writing the story was reflecting on the events of his past. Therefore, the novel has to be read and analyzed in the historical and social context. The views of the author concerning blacks and slavery are the combination of his childhood memories and the conscious rejection of slavery of writer’s adulthood. The time period between the abolishment and the time the story was written is relatively short, therefore actual social changes were slight, as the majority of the plantation owners of the South were strongly against the abolishment trying to prevent freeing slaves or their free workforce. Mark Twain was a progressive man, who knew that all people are equal despite their skin color or race. Therefore, friendship between a white boy Huck and black slave Jim is natural and obvious for the adventures events of the story. The two friends share everything what happens on their way down the Mississippi river and really enjoy each other’s company. To conclude, Mark Twain’s unique style of writing, his realism and very insightful sense of humor of his works is the undeniable evidence of the writer’s talent and hard work. His works have been fascinating literature for more than a century and will continue to be enjoyed by the readers of many future generations. Works Cited Benesch, Klaus & Schmidt, Kerstin (ed. ). Space in America: Theory, History, Culture. Rodopi: Amsterdam, 2005. Bridgeman, J. The Colloquial Style in America. New York: Ox- ford Univ. Press, 1966, p. 79. Duncan Jeffrey L. â€Å"The Empirical and the Ideal in Mark Twain†, PMLA, Vol. 95, No. 2 (Mar. , 1980), pp. 201-212. Smith, Henry Nash. Mark Twain: The Development of a Writer, xii,. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1962. Kaplan, Justin Mr. Clemens and Mark Twain: A Biography (New York: Simon, 1966), p. 197. Price, Angel. â€Å"The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County†. Southwestern Humor and Mark Twain. n. d. Web. 25 Jan. 2010. Schmidt, Peter (ed. ). â€Å"Seven Recent Commentaries on Mark Twain†. Studies in the Novel. 34 (2002): 448-460. Twain, Mark. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn with Connections. New York: Henry Holt & Company, 2004. Mark Twain Essay ?America: the land of the free and the home of the brave. When people think of America, they either think of fat Whites eating McDonalds or Yanks who love to invade other countries for oil. What people rarely think of when thinking of America, is the great writers that the country has produced. Throughout this year, I have read many great works written by many American writers. Over the course of America’s history, the nation has produced many great novelists. From Benjamin Franklin during the American Revolution era, to F. Scott Fitzgerald during the Roaring Twenties, many great American writers have written wonderful books and poems. When people from other countries think of great writers, they only think about Shakespeare or Homer, who aren’t even American writers. They rarely think about Henry David Thoreau or Ernest Hemmingway because they aren’t well known in foreign countries. These writers are famously known in America but one common question that people ask is, â€Å"Which American author is the greatest? †In my opinion, out of all the American writers, Mark Twain is the greatest and most influential author because of his humor and wonderful novels. Samuel Langhorne Clemens was born on November 30, 1835, nearly thirty years before he took the name Mark Twain, in Florida, Missouri. It is located some 130 miles north-west of St. Louis, and 30 miles away from the Mississippi River. His father, John Marshal Clemens, was from Virginia and was a failed country farmer and lawyer. His mother, Jane Clemens, met his father in Missouri and married him in 1823. His parents had seven children but only Twain, who was the sixth child, and three other siblings survived childhood. His surviving siblings were Orion, Henry, and Pamela Clemens. When Twain was four, his family moved to Hannibal, Missouri, a port town on the Mississippi River that inspired the town of St. Petersburg in The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Missouri was still a slave state at the time which caused Twain to become familiar with the institution of slavery. He later explored this theme in his writings. As a child, â€Å"Young Twain reveled in life along the Mississippi, a river busy with steamboat activity and he often traveled in makeshift rafts or cavorted in various swimming holes† (â€Å"Mark Twain Biography† par 4). When Twain was eleven years old, his father died and Twain was forced to cease formal schooling and had to help support his family. He came to work for a newspaper called the â€Å"Hannibal Journal,† a newspaper owned by his brother Orion. With no formal education like many other Americans at the time, he got his education in print shops and newspapers. When he turned eighteen, he left Hannibal for New York and worked as a printer. Twain eventually left New York in order to travel to New Orleans down the Mississippi in a steamboat piloted by Horace E. Bixby, who inspired Twain to become a steamboat captain himself. After being rewarded with his steamboat pilot license, Twain received his pen name, Mark Twain, from â€Å"mark twain,† meaning the river is measured at two fathoms. While Twain was training for his pilot’s license, his younger brother, Henry was killed when the steamboat he was working on exploded. Twain, having foreseen this in a dream one month earlier, joined the â€Å"Society for Psychical Research. † Twain continued working on the Mississippi until 1861 when the American Civil War broke out and river was curtailed or blocked off in order to separate the Confederate States in half. At the start of the war, Twain volunteered briefly in a Confederate local unit before the company was disbanded by Twain and his friends two weeks after joining. In 1861, Twain joined Orion and together, the two brothers traveled west across the Great Plains and the Rocky Mountains, visiting a Mormon community in Salt Lake City. Their journey ended in the silver-mining town of Virginia City, Nevada where Twain became an unsuccessful miner. He eventually worked at the â€Å"Territorial Enterprise,† a newspaper in Virginia City. His experiences here gave him material for his 1965 novel, â€Å"The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County. † Twain then moved to San Francisco, California in 1864 where he was still a journalist and met writers such as Bret Harte and Artemus Ward. His first success was his tall tale â€Å"The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County† which brought him national attention. In 1867, Twain toured Europe and the Middle East where he met his future brother-in-law, Charles Langdon. Langdon showed Twain a picture of his sister, Olivia Langdon, in whom Twain immediately claimed to have â€Å"fallen in love at first sight†. Twain eventually married Olivia in Elmira, New York. She came from a â€Å"wealth but liberal family,† and through her he met abolitionists, socialists, and activists for women’s rights such as Frederick Douglas and Harriet Beecher Stowe. The couple moved to Buffalo, New York where they had four children; Langdon, Susy, Clara, and Jean. Twain moved his family to Hartford, Connecticut in 1973 where he eventually wrote The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876), The Prince and the Pauper (1881), Life on the Mississippi (1883), and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1885). Throughout the later years of Twain’s life, he passed through a period of deep depression largely based on the Death of his daughter Susy in 1896 of meningitis, Olivia’s death in 1904, and Jean’s death on December 24, 1909. In 1909, Twain was quoted saying, â€Å"I came in with Halley’s Comet in 1835. It is coming again next year, and I expect to go out with it. It will be the greatest disappointment of my life if I don’t go out with Halley’s Comet. The Almighty has said, no doubt: ‘Now here are these two unaccountable freaks; they came in together, they must go out together† (Mark Twain Biography par 17). Twains prediction was strangely accurate, he died of a heart attack on April 21, 1910, in Redding Connecticut, one day after Haley’s comet made its closest approach to Earth. Twain is buried in his wife’s family plot at Woodlawn Cemetery in Elmira, New York. Mark Twain’s historical background influenced his perspective by making him have a negative view on society slavery. Twain grew up during America’s period of slavery and he witnessed first-hand how cruel people could be to minorities and how little Whites cared for them. An example of this is when Huck says Now I struck an idea, and fetched it out: â€Å"It warn’t the grounding –that didn’t keep us back but a little. We blowed out a cylinderhead. † â€Å"Good gracious! anybody hurt? † â€Å"No’m. Killed a nigger† (Twain 315). These few lines of dialogue say all there is to say about how blacks are viewed at that time by the Whites: that they are â€Å"nobody†, less than human, with lives that are of little or no value to anyone. Twain also felt that the difference between the rich and the poor is unfair because the rich only think about themselves leaving the poor to live their own miserable lives. During Twain’s time, America was practically owned by a hand few of men such as John D. Rockefeller and George Pullman, both wealthy business men who made their money off of cheating their workers by giving them low pay. All the people cared about was making money no matter how they make it. For example, Huck’s father said in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, â€Å"I’ve been in town two days, and O hain’t heard nothing but about you bein’ rich. I heard about it away down the river, too. That’s why I come. You git me that money-tomorrow-I want it,†(Twain 333). Pap is only interested in Huck’s money and was willing to beat Huck, his own son, for the money until he passes out. Once Pap gets the money, he just uses it to go buy alcohol. In these lines, Twain is satirizing how the rich are willing to take money from the poor then use the money on useless possessions. Major social issues of Twain’s time were the issue of slavery and gap between the lower class and the higher class. Twain believed that the Whites were foolish for thinking themselves better then every other race, â€Å"There are many humorous things in this world, among them, the white man’s notion that he is less savage than the other savages† (Mark Twain Biography par 73). This quote provides good historical context in that it shows us how Twain feels about Whites being racist to minorities. He witnessed racism first-hand while growing up in the south. The Whites view other races as savages when in reality, the Whites are the true savages for enslaving a race of people just because they have a different skin color. Mark Twain’s works makes him a realist and a regionalist. Regionalism is when an author implements words and ideas into their work in order to make it sound like the region of the country the story takes place. Realism is when an author writes about life as it currently is. Most of Twain’s works take place in the south and he gives his characters dialogue to match the region in which they came. This is shown when Huck says, â€Å"How is servants treated in England? Do they treat ’em better ‘n we treat our niggers? No! A servant ain’t nobody there. They treat them worse than dogs,†(Twain 345). In these lines, we see Twain using dialogue to show how southerners talk during the time showing his regionalism. These lines are also realist in that they talk about social issues during the time which in this case is slavery and the serf system in England. Mark Twain wrote many great works when he was alive. From the tall tale of the Jumping Frog of Calaveras County to the Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Twain has managed to capture the attention of readers across the country with his amazing works. Out of all of the novels that Twain has written, I would say that there are three that have made the largest impact in America. The first important text that Mark Twain wrote is The Prince and the Pauper. In this work, Twain attempts to inform us about the differences between the upper class and the lower class. The main conflict of the story is about Tom Canty and Prince Edward IV switching roles so that Tom is the prince and the Prince becomes Tom who lives in poverty and their attempts of switching back to their normal lives. The book takes place in England and main plot is about two identical boys , one a prince and one a pauper, switching lives so they can see how the other lives. A few complications are when the real prince gets kicked out of the castle, Tom suddenly becoming King after the previous king dies when Prince Edward was supposed to be king, Prince Edward trying to get back to the castle, Tom’s abusive father beating Tom and Edward, Edward getting arrested, and The Great Seal of England goes missing. The climax of the story is when everybody finds out that Tom is really a pauper and that Edward is the true King. The story resolves with Tom becoming the official ward of the new king of England, King Edward and getting to live in the castle. The most important quote of the novel is said when Edward discovers how bad his citizens live, â€Å"When I am king, they shall not have bread and shelter only, but also teachings out of books; for a full belly is little worth where the mind is starved . . . â€Å"(Twain 154). Edward says these lines because he wants to help out his citizens after discovering how poorly they live. In these lines, Twain is satirizing the wide gap between the rich and the poor in the U. S. Most rich people in the U. S. at the time had no idea that the people living in poverty had terrible living conditions. Twain is also saying that instead of the government just giving us shelter and food, it should also give us education. This text is an important work of Twain’s because it shows the wide gap between the rich and the poor. It is a realist work of literature because it talks about social issues of the time. This text is still relevant today in that there is still a wide gap between the rich and the poor in the U. S. and that the government doesn’t do enough for education because of all the budget cuts and laying off of teachers. The next important text by Mark Twain is The Adventures of Tom Sawyer. In this novel, Twain attempts to entertain us about a boy’s life during the early 1800’s. He also informs us about racism towards Indians during this time. The book is about the childhood adventures of Tom Sawyer. The book takes place the fictional town of St. Louis and the main conflict is Tom trying to find treasure Injun Joe hid while avoiding Joe at the same time. A few complications are when Tom and Becky are lost in the cave, Huck was running from Injun Joe, and Tom trying to avoid Joe in the caves. The climax of the story is when Tom discovers that Injun Joe was in the cave with Tom and Becky while they were lost. The story resolves with Tom and Becky being found, Tom and Huck finding Injun Joe’s treasure, and Injun Joe discovered dead. This text is an important work of Twain’s because it is known as one of the greatest American novels alongside The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. This book lead to Huck Finn being written because of its success. The novel is a regionalist work of literature because it uses dialogue from Mississippi. This book shows racism towards Indians when Twain rights, †[They] confessed that they had had almost as satisfactory a time at the funeral as they could have had at the hanging† (Twain 294). In these lines, we see Twain satirizing how a bunch of white people from around the county went see the funeral of an Indian that was a murderer and they treated it like it was a show. This reveals how truly racist the White were if they were willing to travel far to treat the funeral of an Indian as entertainment. The Adventures of Tom Sawyer is still relevant today because of the fact that the social issues, such as racism towards minorities, that Twain wrote about still exist today. The book is also still relevant today because people talk about it being the prequel to the greatest American novel of all time: The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. The last important text by Mark Twain is no doubt The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn because it is considered the greatest American novel written and the most controversial American novel because of the time it uses the word â€Å"nigger. † In this novel, Twain is trying to inform us about racism during the early 1800s. The book is about Huckleberry Finn and Jim, an escaped slave, trying to escape from the people who try and own them. The book takes place in Mississippi and the main conflict is Huck trying to help Jim escape slavery. A few complications are when the Duke and the King tag along with Huck and Finn, Huck’s dad trying to take Huck’s money, Huck and Jim getting separated, and Jim getting recaptured with Huck trying to save him. The climax of the story is when Huck pretends he is Tom Sawyer, and Tom pretends that he is Sid Sawyer,  Tom’s brother. The story resolves with Jim getting his freedom and Huck being finally free from his father after learning that Pap is dead. This text is an important work of Twain’s because it is widely considered to be the greatest American novel ever written. It correctly explains the main social issue of that time and keeps a reader reading until the very end. The most important quote of this book is when Huck decides not to write a letter to Jim’s owners explaining where Jim is and says, â€Å"All right then, I’ll go to hell (Twain 2410). Huck says these lines when Jim gets captured and he has to contemplate whether to tell his owner or help Jim and go to hell. Huck decides to rip and the letter and help Jim even if it means going to Hell. He knows that he is going against the teachings of the church, the teachings of his elders, basically going against the full of society that he has been immersed in. The statement is heartfelt, as Huck sees his betrayal to hold serious consequences. This quote also reflects Twain’s belief in that you should help other people no matter the consequences. This book is still relevant today because the social issues brought up in this book are still around today. Mark Twain is still relevant today in many ways. There are schools, parks, and streets named after him. Recently, there was an article saying that the city of Elmira will put up signs explaining about Twains life. The article says,† A project is under way in Elmira to place signs at three sites to provide historical background and explain their significance in the life of Mark Twain. † In these lines, we still see that Mark Twain is still important today even 100 years after his death. These signs will tell the new generation of people who Mark Twain is and hopefully get them interested enough about him in order to read his novels. I think that Mark Twain is the greatest American writer because of the books that he wrote and the time period that he wrote them. He lived during the time of slavery and wrote his books based on denouncing slavery and racism. The most important thing I learned about Mark Twain is that he was one of the few non-racist Whites in America during that time. He was willing to help minorities which is something most people didn’t do, â€Å"To be good is noble; but to show others how to be good is nobler and no trouble† (Mark Twain Biography par 16). This quote gives us the message that we should help other people in order to truly be a good person. Mark Twain lived by this rule and wrote his books based on it. The main reason why I think Twain is still important today is that he was the father of American literature. His two greatest books, The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, are considered by many as the greatest American novels ever written. His books can relate to people who read them because they can find similarities between themselves and Tom Sawyer and Huck Finn. The main reason why I think that Mark Twain is the greatest American writer is because his works are about satirizing the common belief at the time that the White man is better than the Black man and any other minorities. His works reflect his belief that minorities should be treated equally. In order for one to be great, one must have the will to help others that aren’t as fortunate as them and treat them the way you want yourself to be treated. Works Cited Finger, Ray. Signs Will Tell Mark Twain’s Story in Elmira. The Star Gazette. 7 May 2013 Web. 1 June 2013 http://www. stargazette. com/apps/pbcs. dll/article? AID=/20130507/NEWS01/305070051/1113/ Twain, Mark. Life on the Mississippi. New York: New American Library. 1961 Twain, Mark. The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. New York: New American Library. 1979 Twain, Mark. The Prince and the Pauper. New York: New American Library 1979 Mark Twain Biography. The New York Times. Web. 6 June 2013 http://people. brandeis. edu/~teuber/twainbio. html